Report on two water provision methods Lab Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

On two water provision methods - Lab Report Example 21). This describes the situation of arid and semi-arid areas that constitute 30% of the land surface in the world. This means the areas may experience periods of sporadic water shortages, which may threaten the development of the community as well as the lives of the population. The situation is addressed through the establishment of water demand and supply balance that is multifaceted through the incorporation of water provision projects in the regional planning needs. The projects so incorporated should be tailor made to suit the specific problems of the region. Methods of water provision in arid areas The provision of water process may incorporate a diverse range of methods that seek to establish a stable and renewable water supply and demand chain for the arid regions. These options range from the construction of dams to create reservoirs, desalinization processes, ground water reserves exploration, reusing of wastewater, and enhancing rainwater collection methods. However, some factors in the regions serve to rule out some options as the preferred modes. The option of rainwater collection is ruled out if the area receives minimal annual rainfall amounts. The area also requires a steady source of water in the form of a river, for the construction of a dam (Cipollina, Micale, and Rizzuti, 2009, p. 45). The amount of water availed by reusing is dependable on the amount available for use in the first place. This leaves desalinisation processes and the exploration of ground water reserves as the most viable options. Background information of the two methods 1) Desalinisation processes Desalinization also referred to as desalination, is a term used for any of the processes used to remove the large quantities of salts and minerals contained in saline water. The aim of the processes is to produce fresh water that is suitable for incorporation in irrigation and human consumption. The processes are preferred as they produce salts as byproducts that are used in the production of other products. This method of water provision is applicable in the setting of arid areas as most have underground water reserves that are high in salt content that make them unfit for human consumption and other general-purpose applications like irrigation (Wang 2008, p. 24). The method is specifically suitable for arid areas like Egypt and Israel that are next to unlimited saline water reserves in the form of the sea. 2) Underground water exploration Ground water is the collection of water in the ground that results from the infiltration and percolation of water from various forms of precipitation ranging from rainfall to snow, which is then trapped in bedrock consisting impermeable rocks. The location of these water resources is not restricted to specific regions as it is found nearly everywhere (Raghunath2007, p. 71). However, the usable and reliable quantities are only found in rock formations known as aquifers with sufficient voids between them enabling the holdi ng and conducting of water. This means that most arid areas are sitting on large water reserves that may act as stable water supply sources in the areas if they are explored (Webb 2006, p. 12). Comparison between the two methods Processes used i) Desalinization Originally, the processes of desalinization applied vacuum distillation processes to separate the salts from the water. This involved the boiling the saline water in pressure conditions that are much

The Hyundai Group Essay Example for Free

The Hyundai Group Essay The strikes of 1987 found their main base amongst workers in heavy industry, especially in Ulsan, the centre of Hyundai’s operations in South Korea. I II. Background of the study The Pressure built up during the harsh years of military dictatorship, economic boom, and management style had caused several labor strikes. For thirty years, South Korea had been ruled by a military dictator and growing calls for democracy had echoed through the 1970s and early 80s. South Korea’s economic boom put Hyundai in a position wherein their strategy of low wages and hard work were no longer suffice in the face of rising competition from other developing nations and swelling demands from the country’s more independent youth generation. At Hyundai, employees viewed the owners’ style as authoritarian in which the consensus is what the boss says it is. Also, company had created an image that was unwilling to change with the times. IV. Point of view Chung Ju Yung: The founder of Hyundai, he is willing to tackle the impossible and unwilling to accept â€Å"no† from subordinates. Hyundai Workers: They want better working conditions and environment. They have been looked down on in Korea. They don’t have voices in management decisions and experienced erratic job schedules with lower wages. V. Objectives 1. To improve the management style and cope with changes along with time. 2. To address the dispute between the management of Hyundai and its workers, such that the result will provide a positive sum that will satisfy both parties’ concern. VI. SWOT analysis Strengths: 1.The Hyundai group makes a wide range of products. 2.The company’s chairman is very persistent. 3.Workers are disciplined, para-military, single-minded, and self-sufficient machine. 4.The company has a good reputation. 5.The company has low cost of production thereby low-priced products. Weaknesses: 1.Authoritarian leadership style 2.Top management is not committed to high-tech. 3.The company adopted paternalism corporate management. 4. Labor union issues Opportunities: 1.Large market share 2.Potential market for ASEAN Threats: 1.Rising competition 2.High dependency on exports 3.Technology gap to advanced countries VII. Alternative courses of action A.Go. Give an increase in labor wages by 28% and recognize labor union. Advantages: 1.Workers’ rights are protected. 2.Higher wages encourage employees to work. 3.Voices of employees are heard with the formation of labor union. Disadvantages: 1.Additional costs are incurred in the part of Hyundai. 2.Lessen the flexibility of workers. 3.Workers may demand follow-up increase in their wages. B. No Go. Do not give an increase in labor wages and do not recognize labor unions. Advantages: 1.No additional costs will be incurred regarding labor wages. 2.Employees cannot easily complain. Disadvantages: 1.Employees will continue their labor stike. 2.Employees remain unsatisfied with the current wage. 3.They will not be motivated to work hard. 4.The company’s operation will continue to be interrupted and demand for products is not met. C.Encourage participative management style, recognize labor union and increase workers’ wages and adjust working hours. Advantages: 1.Employees’ satisfaction and commitment to work. 2.With the formation of labor union, workers’ right are protected. 3.Participative management style allows the voices of employee to be heard. 4.Workers tend to be loyal to the organization. Disadvantages: 1.Costly. An increased in labor wages lessens company’s profit. 2.Shortening working hours reduce production output. 3.Labor unions can limit the flexibility of workforce. VIII. Recommendation Alternative C which is to encourage participative management style, recognize labor union and increase workers’ wages and adjust working hours is considered as the best alternative course of action. With this alternative, the demands of the workers are satisfied as well as those of the management. Participative management style allows the interchange of ideas between the management and workers. Workers’ rights are protected because of the formation of labor unions. Moreover, operations in Hyundai will be stabilized. IX. Conclusion Hyundai played a vital role in Korea’s economic development, and that was intricately interdependent with a number of other forces such as government, economic and non-economic factor. The authoritarian type of government greatly influenced businesses as shown in the management style of the Hyundai’s founder Chung Ju-Yung. The call for change in management style, higher salary increase and demand for respect caused the workers to rebel. Participative management style, creation of labor union, increased in wages and shortening working hours answer the said problem. The solution benefited the workers and the management. X. Courses of action Government actions are beyond the control of Hyundai’s management. The degree of respect demanded by workers varies individually.

Abandoned Oil Wells End of Field Life

Abandoned Oil Wells End of Field Life ABSTRACT As petroleum, production continues to decline in many parts of the globe, more operators are seeing well abandonment as a reality. Drilled wells are plugged and abandoned for different reasons of which the typical and operational reason is that the well has reached its economic limit or when drilled it was found to be a dry hole. (refer). According to Ide, T., et al 2006, well bore is taken to be high fluid transmittal pathway. Even with the current procedure of sealing and abandonment, individual wells have the tendency to loose their integrity due to various factors, which include but not limited to poor cementation, poor or ineffective plugging, and increase in formation pressure after abandonment, corrosion of casing (refer). Safe and economical well abandonment are important to the industry from environmental and financial standpoints. Improper abandonment can require re-abandonment procedures to mitigate environmental contamination or to comply with updated regulations, causing an increased financial burden on the operator. 1. Introduction 1.1 BACKGROUND All wells drilled have a distinct life cycle with respect to its cost, duration, recovery, and value. Although these characteristics and attributes are specific to an individual drilled well, all producing wells pass through the same initial and final state, beginning with completion and ending with abandonment. After the drilling stage of a well and the target depth is reached, a decision to complete the well is made based on the reservoir attributes: is the well dry or is the hydrocarbon in place of economic value. Ultimately, every well becomes dormant because of reduced economic returns or technical problem. When a well stops producing, it either may be shut-in (SI), temporary abandoned (TA) or permanently abandoned (pa). With ageing fields fast approaching their economic limit, abandonment is becoming increasingly frequent and many operators have to modify their abandonment procedure to fit the Wellbore condition and make certain that abandoned wells remain permanently sealed and prevent commingling while balancing the environmental objectives of abandonment and cost of actual abandonment. Wells, which are not abandoned appropriately, can become a major hazard to the underground source of drinking water and possibly the aquatic environment [8] Shut in status (SI) When a well is shut-in it is still flowing but its Christmas tree, SV, wing valves are all closed. Usually a well is shut-in if there is a technical or operational problem, which is believed to be temporary. There is no maximum time for a well to remain in shut-in status as long as it is regularly maintained according to regulatory requirement and procedures. Temporary abandonment status (TA) A well is said to be temporarily abandoned when the wellhead is removed and the producing interval is isolated with a plug and the casing is plugged below the mud line. REASONS FOR ABANDONMENT There are various reasons why a well is abandoned, these are: END OF FIELD LIFE ABANDONMENT Drilled wells must at one point in time be abandoned. Before a well reaches the point at which it has to be abandoned it passes through various stages in its life cycle; it begins with the survey and exploitation of an area for signs on hydrocarbon [1]. This leads to a rewarding and exciting discovery of an accumulation of hydrocarbon deposit. This is followed by the acquired Data Processing stage and finally the drilling process. During drilling, the well is created by the use of drill bit and cased off at specific as drilling progresses. Another fulfilling target is reached when the first hydrocarbon is produced a process which unfortunately eventually proceeds the declining period where the rate of hydrocarbon production decreases. However, successful enhanced oil recovery techniques often than not make this stage rewarding financially as it extends the life of the well [1]. When all enhanced oil recovery technique has been employed, and the cost of producing the well is no longer economically viable, the next process is abandonment; a stage not so welcomed by most operators as it means the cessation of production. Dry hole Abandonment A drilled well is also abandoned when after drilling, the hole was found to be a dry hole. Though abandonment is meant to be a permanent termination, the effect is felt for many years more than that of the short producing life of the well. The main goal of any plugging and abandonment is to provide a permanent and effective isolation of fluids all along the subsurface formation in the different layers where they were enclosed prior to plugging, thereby preventing fluid migration and reduce environmental risks of contamination and prevent costly remedial jobs [1]. To achieve this several significant intervals of the well must be filled and tightly closed with a sealant material from bottom hole to the surface with special attention paid to the production interval [4] and zones of high differential pressure and temperature. The material used for plugging differ depending on what type of well is being abandoned, for oil and gas well the material used is normally cement based materials, for water well, cement based as well as bentonite can be used to isolate the different intervals[4][ PUT UNDER CEMENT PLUG CHARACTERISTICS UNDERE INTEGRITY OF ABANDONED WELLS. The integrity of the abandoned well can fail for very many reaso ns such as plug failure, poor slurry design etc. A cement plug can fail to set at the desired location as cement slurry often has the tendency to fall through the lighter drilling fluid below it [9]. Failure can also be as a result of downhole changes which may occur after the well has been abandoned [8]. Over the years, techniques for drilling and completion of hydrocarbon wells have continued to evolve. This drive for new technology for hydrocarbon recovery is due to the need to maximize hydrocarbon recovery while protecting the environment [4]. The evolution of well abandonment techniques has been much slower than that of drilling and completion. This is because abandonment is considered a sunk cost [4]. Project Objective The objectives of this thesis is to review the factors which contribute to the overall integrity of abandoned wells. These include, well parameters, cement placement techniques, casing integrity. These play an important role in the design, construction and actual execution of the abandonment project. In the abandonment of wells, the factors that contribute to the integrity differ depending on the wells. This is because each well is a unique entity and hence has to have independent well abandonment design. PROJECT METHODOLOGY In this work I intend to talk about For instance, in a well where a fish is lost in hole the abandonment design has to taken into consideration remedial action or ways to set the cement plug as there may be no access to the bottom hole to set a bottom plug in the sump. Abandoned wells can be a cause of concern due to their potential to act as path for flow between formations, which under normal circumstance are isolated including underground sources of drinking water, of great concern are those abandonments with faulty plugs, compromised casing and those having cracks in the cement [7]. This work is aimed at highlighting the different factors which contribute to the integrity of an abandoned well. ( reorder and rewrite) Chapter 2 Literature review Well abandonment has come a long way since the first discovery of oil and gas, with the increasing awareness of the importance of environmental protection, the need to improve the processes of abandonment has now become a major concern for many operators, as abandoned wells are considered a possible conduit for fluid flow between different formations. According to C. H. Kelm et al, the objective of abandonment of a well must taken into consideration the need to do so in a best practices manner by examining the following fundamental aim of any abandonment process; The need to protect any hydrocarbon left in the pay zone of the formation drilled. The need to preserve and prevent contamination of freshwater zones (for onshore rigs) penetrated during the course of drilling the well. Avert of any contamination of the surface environment. For instance, in the case of vegetation, air pollution and marine environment. The need to abide by all regulatory requirements stated in during the abandonment. In the past years many papers has been published on areas ranging from alternative plugging technique, self healing and expandable cement, improved cement slurry design, placement technique with the aim to reduce the cost of abandonment and improve the abandonment. Abandoned well in an oil field are sealed using a plugging material according to regulatory requirements. A perfect example of a plugging material in the ideal sense according to D.G Calvert et al 1994 is one, which can be pumped down the drilled hole, has the ability to harden in a reasonable time, and bond with the walls of the drilled formation and casing in order to prevent fluid flow from one formation to another. While regulations vary from place to place, the general practice involves plugging the Wellbore with a Portland cement material specifically designed for the isolation purpose. In his review of plugging and abandonment techniques, D. G. Calvert et al, stated that the cement mixture used in oil and gas vary d epending on the type of hole is to be isolated. Very few papers has been published that focuses on the integrity of the actual well after abandonment. Liversidge, D. et al. in his work on permanent plug and abandonment solution for the Northsea he presented case histories of the Brent South field abandonment project done using both class G cement with an expandable agent system and flexible cement according to the current stringent regulation. Cement integrity preservation during well completion, production phases as well as during abandonment is of critical importance for long-term protection. In the past years numerous papers and texts in the area of cement sheath failure, improved flexible and expanding cement and related topics have been published, indicating the increasing need to improve well abandonment and reduce cost. Examples of works published include but not limited to (Bosma et al 2000), (Ravi et al. 2002), (Glessner et al., 2005), (Mainguy et al., 2007), (D. G calvert et al., 1994), (Locolier et al., 2006),( Liversidge et al., 2006). Although many papers have been written, very little work has been done to investigate the cement plug integrity after abandonment. The ascribed cause to this may be that permanent abandonment is considered a non-profit venture. Mainguy M. et al., 2007 carried out an analysis of the probability of failure of cement plugs when subjected to varying compressive and tensile load using an ideal reservoir model designed to suit changes in the downhole condition. In his study he identified that there is a greater tendency for the material used to seal zones for abandonment to fail in wells situated where there is instability in the pressure, temperature and stress state due to changes that occur downhole. He concluded that when the plug is subjected to maximum tensile stress it failed due to the low tensile strength of the conventional class G cement. Though he suggested the use of pre-stressed cement as they adapt more to changes downhole, his work did not cover the problem of rock-cement de-bonding which is a problem that greatly reduces the sealing capacity of cement. In the study done by R.C. Smith et al., 1984, on the successful method of setting cement plug, he investigated the ongoing failures of cement plug s due to the instability caused by the difference between the density of the cement and the drilling mud. In his work, he suggested the use of mud thickened with bentonite before spotting the cement so as to allow a greater density difference. With respect to the problem of controlling the direction of flow of the cement slurry a diverter placed at the end of the tubing to help divert the direction of flow and improve stability. Drilling fluid can also be used as a plugging material by adding a cementitous additive. The additive can either be fly ash of blast furnace slag which have the characteristics of a cement as they harden when the mixed with water. Cement is not naturally occurring but manmade and like any other manmade material, it is expected to age, wear-off, and, degrade overtime under different subsurface condition, which may differ from the time it was initially set [W. Zhou et. al 2005]. Plugging oil well is a common operation, which is increasing as mature field reach the end of their producing life. In general, plugging and abandonment of a well involves filling a certain length of casing or open hole with a volume of cement mixture designed for it in order to provide adequate sealing against upward migration of formation fluid. After the cement plug is place in the desired location it is left to harden over time. The placement of the cement plug is a major part of abandonment, as failure of this will cause commingling of fluids from different formation. The setting and spotting of cement plugs can be done in various ways depending on the wellbore condition and regulatory requirement. A review of the worldwide acceptable plugging procedure shows the a minimum of three cement plugs is required of which two are, the first plug is put in place by squeezing the cement plug through the perforation into the former producing zone in order to seal off any further influx of reservoir fluid into the Wellbore[2]. The second plug is usually set towards the middle of the Wellbore or near a protective casing shoe. Finally the third plug is set about200- 300ft below the mud line. In general, the length of a plug ranges from 100to 200ft depending on the regulatory requirements. Any additional plug set is dependent on the well bore condition. Although observations and studies show that cement plugs have the ability to perform as expected for up to several decades, uncertainty exists that the material can maintain its isolation integrity for several thousands of years. Recent study shows that abandoned wells in which CO2 was used in the enhanced oil recovery technique prior to abandonment have the potential to leak and allow CO2 migration notwithstanding the fact that the well has been properly abandoned [Scherer, G.W et al, 2005]. This is mainly due to corrosion and degradation of the casing and cement. This degradation and corrosion occurs when carbonic acid formed from the dissolution of CO2 in brine attacks the cement and casing [Scherer, G.W et al, 2005] a process, which is dependent on the temperature of the formation, cement composition, brine and the rock mechanics and composition. Potential leakage of reservoir fluids through degraded cement plugs is hence of primary concern. Various work on inter-formational flow shows that there is still the possibility of flow between formations even with a successful plugging of different interval. This case can arise when the abandoned well is near an active well. Javandel et al developed the first analytical model; their model showed the possible of flow to an upper formation in response to a lower injection pressure build up in a lower formation. Striz and wiggings carried out further work by developing a coupled model to predict flow using a steady state approach to create a transient flow. This model can be used to developed abandoned fluid flow using available field data. In recent studies, statistics show that in the US one in every three well drilled for hydrocarbon is dry and have to be plugged and abandoned[D.G Calvert, et al 1994]. Wells are drilled for various reasons ranging from industrial, oil and gas, to municipal uses, but in the end these well have to be abandoned [D.G Calvert, et al 1994]. Some wells were abandoned before any regulation and guidelines were defined, these wells may have either been plugged improperly or not plugged at all and these now poses a threat to the quality of the groundwater. For the aim of regulating bodies to be achieved i.e. achieving underground water protect and hence environmental protect, the operating companies must understand that following the different regulatory requirement alone is not sufficient to guarantee a lasting protection of the environment [4]. It is sometimes difficult for operators to abide by the regulatory requirements as well as developing a plan which would both serve to seal off the reservoir and provide long-term protection of the environment while justifying the overall cost in general [4]. Currently there is a high rise in abandonment of ageing and mature field which either have reached their economic limit or are no longer producing (refer). Methods of ABANDONMENT The initial stage of a decommissioning process is the plugging and abandonment of the wells, during this stage, the tubing, casing strings, and, conductors are cut below the mud line and removed, zones are sealed with cement plug to isolate the flow path between the reservoir fluids and other zones as well as the surface. Zones not sealed with cement plug are filled with mud with fluid having the proper weight and consistency to prevent movement of other fluids into the wellbore. Most abandonments follow a general methodology that is adjusted to meet individual well requirements. As procedures can and do change significantly for each well, cement plug design should frequently be attuned to reach minimum wait-on-cement (WOC) times with varying downhole conditions. Near-wellbore geology should be assessed, and the wellbore and annuli properly cleaned to avoid microannuli and poor cement bonding. Traditional techniques include cement squeezes, gel squeezes, and mechanical plugs such as bridge plugs and packers. Cement and gel technologies are mainly used for behind casing repair, and mechanical options are usually confined to plugging the casing. In the general process of abandonment there as basic steps which are followed to ensure successful plug and abandonment program. This includes the planning process, wellbore equipment testing, designing, well geometry assessment. PA PLANNING The most essential decision after when to abandon a well [11] is how. Preparation is a key ingredient in plug and abandonment of a well. In order to abandon a well successfully careful planning and effective plugging and abandonment procedure is crucial to prevent gas or fluids from moving to the surface or to other subsurface formations. In addition to the environmental risks that come with poor seals, corrective plugging may be necessary, increasing the cost and difficulty of abandoning a well. However, operators and service companies have several options for obtaining complete, permanent abandonment. For every well, there is a variation as each well PA is unique and different. The techniques used to achieve this process are generally based on industry practice, research, and conformance with the relevant regulatory compliance requirement. The synthesis of practical knowledge, current technology and regulatory requirements results in the most effective wellbore plugging and abandonment possible. Wellbore equipment testing. A preliminary inspection and survey of the wellhead and wellbore condition is carried out to determine if the valves on the wellhead are in operable condition, if it is found not to be in operable condition they are hot-tapped. The wellbore is surveyed using a slickline unit to check for any obstructions in the well, to confirm measured depth and also to gauge the internal diameter of the tubing. After the survey and removal of the slickline, the annuli and tubing is filled with fluid using a well pump is installed at the wellhead to ascertain an injection rate into the perforations. The tubing and casing are also pressured up to check for integrity. Casing annuli are also pressure tested to check for communication problems between casing strings and to record the test pressure over a period of time. The integrity and reliability of the primary cement is assessed in order to ensure that the cement sheath is still providing isolation across the reservoir and the cap rock. A well control plan is designed to establish reservoir condition and subsequently the contingency responses to any event which may occur during the abandonment process. DESIGN OF A WELL ABANDONMENT PROGRAM Prior to plugging and abandoning a well, a review of the existing well design, record of past work, previous well performance and geologic and reservoir condition is carried out by the operator. The investigation of everything that may relate to the health and safety issues as well as regulatory requirements is also performed, after which the design of the abandonment program begins. The design is done based the existing wellbore and reservoir conditions depending on the findings from the review and investigation. This allows the operator to plan an abandonment program that will satisfy the goal of making the well safe from future resources. PA design needs to be integrated in the planning of the well, and should be considered in a single budget. There are many factors which must be put into consideration in order to design an effective abandonment program , such as, the reservoir status, the integrity of the primary cement, hole cleaning and cement placement technique, the temperatu re and pressure of the well, the type of fluid in the well, the age of the well, the status of the cap rock. Fluid Type Drilled wells produce fluids in liquid and gaseous form, wells which contain sour fluids i.e. sulphur rich would be expected to have accelerated corrosion rates and stress cracking depending on the age and wellbore construction, may impair the capacity to perform plug and abandonment, to mitigate this components which are corrosion resistant can be used. Reservoir status In the design of PA, it is necessary to consider the reservoir status concerning its stability, the current pressure and temperature, the pressure at the initial stages of well development and the permeability of the reservoir both horizontal and vertical. With the information, plug and abandonment is then designed to withstand the pressure of the well after finally reach equilibrium. Cap rock Status It is also necessary to take into consideration the cap rock status i.e. is it still impermeable, has production activities induced fracture or has weathering taken effect. Placing the Plugs After the design and planning of the abandonment program, calculations must be made to determine the amount of cement required and the number of wiper plugs needed to separate the cement plugs from the rest of the fluids. The use of wiper plugs enables the formation of a stable platform on which the cement can be set. A wiper plug is placed in the wellbore, and then a predetermined quantity of cement slurry is pumped on top of it. Because of its weight, the slurry becomes a driving force. The slurry falls to the bottom of the hole, pushing the wiper plug ahead of it and forcing existing air and produced fluids back into the formation. Another plug and perhaps a bit more cement finish the job. In most wells, where there is one permaeble zone, one plug and one volume of cement and the surface plug are all that is needed. In other wells, additional wiper plugs, additional cement slurry, and probably spacers of water or drilling fluid are used consecutively until all of the air and fluid is forced out into the formation, there is zilch pressure on the pipe, and it is apparent from the returns that the whole wellbore is appropriately sealed. The quantity and kind of spacer fluid that can be used is dependent on individual state regulations. The remaining casing at the top of the well is cut off 3 ft below ground level. Along with this general methodology, each region stipulates its own abandonment methods based on field conditions and local regulations as can be seen in the following examples. PA steps in Los Angeles Basin in as follows [12]: The abandonment program is prepared with the support of a qualified engineer. A schematic showing the current mechanical condition of the well is prepared. The geologic condition of the well, including the structure, faulting, and producing zones is assessed. The depth and position of cement plug that will cover the producing zones and any potable water zones if applicable is measured and verified. Choice of whether to use perforating or cavity shots is made. The casing is pressure tested after setting cement retainers. The different equipment required for the job is determined and assembled. Estimate of abandonment/re-abandonment costs is made. In contrast, the steps followed for the Hutton tension-leg platform (TLP) in the East Shetland Basin of the North Sea involved three phases [13]: Perform standalone wireline intervention. Perform drilling unit intervention to set the cement plugs after the first wireline plug has been set. Cut casing 10 ft below the seabed and recover casing stumps. Another abandonment performed in the North Sea followed a different procedure [14]: A permanent cement primary barrier placed immediately above the reservoir. A secondary barrier placed as a back-up to the first barrier. A third barrier then placed near the surface to isolate shallow water-bearing sands. Severed completion tubing and recover wellhead. In Western Canada, the traditional abandonment procedure of wells with casing vent flows included the following: The source of the casing vent flow is estimated or determined. If the source zone is shallower than the producing zone, the producing zone is abandoned. The source zone is perforated. Depending on the feed rate obtained at the estimated source depth, either a bradenhead or a retainer squeeze is performed. Retrievable tools are used as required. Typically, Class G cement with Calcium Chloride and some fluid-loss control is utilized. The slurry is placed and a static squeeze pressure of 7 MPa is attempted. As needed, cement is drilled out and perforations are tested for seal. Often, several attempts are made in order to obtain a static squeeze pressure of 7 Mpa on surface or mitigate the casing vent flow. Techniques for Abandonment The techniques used for plugging and abandonment of drilled well worldwide are generally based on industry practise. These techniques include; Rig Coil tubing unit Rigless abandonment COIL TUBING UNIT The flexibility of coiled tubing has recently been tailored to develop rigless abandonment [15,16]. This method, focuses on harmonizing all well services to accomplish utmost efficiency. Coiled-tubing unit [fig.] abandonment, like any other method, is more effective when appropriate cementing procedure is used from the kick-off of the well, from original zonal isolation with the primary cement sheath to plugging and abandonment. Early prevention of microannulus can help operators obtain a complete final seal. Five main criteria are recommended for optimal abandonment performance with coiled tubing: Mobility; All equipment should be mounted on wheels for increased mobility. Self-sufficiency; the service company provides nearly all activities. Dry location; Fluids are not drained on or near the wellsite. Single operation; the job is completed in one visit to the wellsite. Low mileage; Move time is reduced and transport optimized for maximum efficiency in unit and camp moves. In this abandonment technique geological consideration like the type and condition of the reservoir and caprock formations are take into account. Permanent seals typically must be made between producing zones and at impermeable caprock formations. The condition and configuration of cement, perforations, tubulars, and downhole equipment are also considered. In addition to providing complete, permanent seals, the use of coiled-tubing can help increase abandonment efficiency. This method can provide the following advantages: Increased tripping speeds Increased rig-move efficiency Precise placement of cement plugs; exact spotting of plugs at the interval of interest even in deep well as coil tubing can be reciprocated while pumping. Suitable for use on live wells; it is possible to run CTU for remedial cement squeeze in live well as the wellbore can be controlled using the BOP and stripper assembly. No need to pull production tubing; existing tubing and wellheads do not have to be removed to access the producing interval. Success using the coil tubing method has been recorded in Oman. REGULATORY REQUIREMENT FOR ABANDONMENT IN THE NORTHSEA AND USA In the early years on the oil and gas industry, many wells were drilled and some were found to be dry and subsequently were abandoned without much consideration given to the manner in which the wells were abandoned. Sometimes tree stumps were thrown in the well as a means to plug it [3], during this era the preservation of the groundwater, in general, the environment was not a major issue, and there was no defined regulation by the oil states or agencies. During the tail end of the 1930s different states and agencies in the US started establishing regulations, this defined requirement to ensure better well abandonment [D.G Calvert, et al 1994]. The number of regulation guiding well abandonment has risen along with the rising need to protect the environment in countries around the world. Today most countries have some form of regulation that addresses well abandonment requirement; though these regulations are not uniform and differ from country to country and body to body, they provide a minimum standard for operating companies. For instance for the state of California in the United States of America, the different governing bodies have their own regulations which are as follows; Minerals Management Services (MMS): The basic plugging requirements are found in 30 CFR 250.110 Subpart G. Department of Conservation, Division of Oil: Gas, and Geothermal Resources (DOC) The California Code of Regulations Title 14 Division 2, Chapter 4 beginning with Section 1745 focuses on the fundamental plugging requirements. California State Lands Commission (CSLC): The fundamental plugging requirements in the California Code of Regulations Title 2 Section 2128(q). Abandonment in the North Sea In the North Sea as in US, the regulations differ. The different countries that make up the North Sea have their different governing bodies and subsequently different regulation. The law in the UK, Norway, Denmark and Holland holds the last operator of a well accountable and responsible to pay for all the cost incurred in permanently abandoning the well. It also holds them accountable for any leakage and any clean up that may be required in the event of a leak. Abandonment programs in the Northsea are designed to meet the guidelines for abandonment issued by the operation association or government. For the UK sector of the north sea, abandonment guidelines is issued by the UKOOA, similarly for the Norwegian sector the guidelines are contained in the NORSOK/PTIL D-010 standard and for the Netherlands it is contained in the Dutch Mining Abandoned Oil Wells End of Field Life Abandoned Oil Wells End of Field Life ABSTRACT As petroleum, production continues to decline in many parts of the globe, more operators are seeing well abandonment as a reality. Drilled wells are plugged and abandoned for different reasons of which the typical and operational reason is that the well has reached its economic limit or when drilled it was found to be a dry hole. (refer). According to Ide, T., et al 2006, well bore is taken to be high fluid transmittal pathway. Even with the current procedure of sealing and abandonment, individual wells have the tendency to loose their integrity due to various factors, which include but not limited to poor cementation, poor or ineffective plugging, and increase in formation pressure after abandonment, corrosion of casing (refer). Safe and economical well abandonment are important to the industry from environmental and financial standpoints. Improper abandonment can require re-abandonment procedures to mitigate environmental contamination or to comply with updated regulations, causing an increased financial burden on the operator. 1. Introduction 1.1 BACKGROUND All wells drilled have a distinct life cycle with respect to its cost, duration, recovery, and value. Although these characteristics and attributes are specific to an individual drilled well, all producing wells pass through the same initial and final state, beginning with completion and ending with abandonment. After the drilling stage of a well and the target depth is reached, a decision to complete the well is made based on the reservoir attributes: is the well dry or is the hydrocarbon in place of economic value. Ultimately, every well becomes dormant because of reduced economic returns or technical problem. When a well stops producing, it either may be shut-in (SI), temporary abandoned (TA) or permanently abandoned (pa). With ageing fields fast approaching their economic limit, abandonment is becoming increasingly frequent and many operators have to modify their abandonment procedure to fit the Wellbore condition and make certain that abandoned wells remain permanently sealed and prevent commingling while balancing the environmental objectives of abandonment and cost of actual abandonment. Wells, which are not abandoned appropriately, can become a major hazard to the underground source of drinking water and possibly the aquatic environment [8] Shut in status (SI) When a well is shut-in it is still flowing but its Christmas tree, SV, wing valves are all closed. Usually a well is shut-in if there is a technical or operational problem, which is believed to be temporary. There is no maximum time for a well to remain in shut-in status as long as it is regularly maintained according to regulatory requirement and procedures. Temporary abandonment status (TA) A well is said to be temporarily abandoned when the wellhead is removed and the producing interval is isolated with a plug and the casing is plugged below the mud line. REASONS FOR ABANDONMENT There are various reasons why a well is abandoned, these are: END OF FIELD LIFE ABANDONMENT Drilled wells must at one point in time be abandoned. Before a well reaches the point at which it has to be abandoned it passes through various stages in its life cycle; it begins with the survey and exploitation of an area for signs on hydrocarbon [1]. This leads to a rewarding and exciting discovery of an accumulation of hydrocarbon deposit. This is followed by the acquired Data Processing stage and finally the drilling process. During drilling, the well is created by the use of drill bit and cased off at specific as drilling progresses. Another fulfilling target is reached when the first hydrocarbon is produced a process which unfortunately eventually proceeds the declining period where the rate of hydrocarbon production decreases. However, successful enhanced oil recovery techniques often than not make this stage rewarding financially as it extends the life of the well [1]. When all enhanced oil recovery technique has been employed, and the cost of producing the well is no longer economically viable, the next process is abandonment; a stage not so welcomed by most operators as it means the cessation of production. Dry hole Abandonment A drilled well is also abandoned when after drilling, the hole was found to be a dry hole. Though abandonment is meant to be a permanent termination, the effect is felt for many years more than that of the short producing life of the well. The main goal of any plugging and abandonment is to provide a permanent and effective isolation of fluids all along the subsurface formation in the different layers where they were enclosed prior to plugging, thereby preventing fluid migration and reduce environmental risks of contamination and prevent costly remedial jobs [1]. To achieve this several significant intervals of the well must be filled and tightly closed with a sealant material from bottom hole to the surface with special attention paid to the production interval [4] and zones of high differential pressure and temperature. The material used for plugging differ depending on what type of well is being abandoned, for oil and gas well the material used is normally cement based materials, for water well, cement based as well as bentonite can be used to isolate the different intervals[4][ PUT UNDER CEMENT PLUG CHARACTERISTICS UNDERE INTEGRITY OF ABANDONED WELLS. The integrity of the abandoned well can fail for very many reaso ns such as plug failure, poor slurry design etc. A cement plug can fail to set at the desired location as cement slurry often has the tendency to fall through the lighter drilling fluid below it [9]. Failure can also be as a result of downhole changes which may occur after the well has been abandoned [8]. Over the years, techniques for drilling and completion of hydrocarbon wells have continued to evolve. This drive for new technology for hydrocarbon recovery is due to the need to maximize hydrocarbon recovery while protecting the environment [4]. The evolution of well abandonment techniques has been much slower than that of drilling and completion. This is because abandonment is considered a sunk cost [4]. Project Objective The objectives of this thesis is to review the factors which contribute to the overall integrity of abandoned wells. These include, well parameters, cement placement techniques, casing integrity. These play an important role in the design, construction and actual execution of the abandonment project. In the abandonment of wells, the factors that contribute to the integrity differ depending on the wells. This is because each well is a unique entity and hence has to have independent well abandonment design. PROJECT METHODOLOGY In this work I intend to talk about For instance, in a well where a fish is lost in hole the abandonment design has to taken into consideration remedial action or ways to set the cement plug as there may be no access to the bottom hole to set a bottom plug in the sump. Abandoned wells can be a cause of concern due to their potential to act as path for flow between formations, which under normal circumstance are isolated including underground sources of drinking water, of great concern are those abandonments with faulty plugs, compromised casing and those having cracks in the cement [7]. This work is aimed at highlighting the different factors which contribute to the integrity of an abandoned well. ( reorder and rewrite) Chapter 2 Literature review Well abandonment has come a long way since the first discovery of oil and gas, with the increasing awareness of the importance of environmental protection, the need to improve the processes of abandonment has now become a major concern for many operators, as abandoned wells are considered a possible conduit for fluid flow between different formations. According to C. H. Kelm et al, the objective of abandonment of a well must taken into consideration the need to do so in a best practices manner by examining the following fundamental aim of any abandonment process; The need to protect any hydrocarbon left in the pay zone of the formation drilled. The need to preserve and prevent contamination of freshwater zones (for onshore rigs) penetrated during the course of drilling the well. Avert of any contamination of the surface environment. For instance, in the case of vegetation, air pollution and marine environment. The need to abide by all regulatory requirements stated in during the abandonment. In the past years many papers has been published on areas ranging from alternative plugging technique, self healing and expandable cement, improved cement slurry design, placement technique with the aim to reduce the cost of abandonment and improve the abandonment. Abandoned well in an oil field are sealed using a plugging material according to regulatory requirements. A perfect example of a plugging material in the ideal sense according to D.G Calvert et al 1994 is one, which can be pumped down the drilled hole, has the ability to harden in a reasonable time, and bond with the walls of the drilled formation and casing in order to prevent fluid flow from one formation to another. While regulations vary from place to place, the general practice involves plugging the Wellbore with a Portland cement material specifically designed for the isolation purpose. In his review of plugging and abandonment techniques, D. G. Calvert et al, stated that the cement mixture used in oil and gas vary d epending on the type of hole is to be isolated. Very few papers has been published that focuses on the integrity of the actual well after abandonment. Liversidge, D. et al. in his work on permanent plug and abandonment solution for the Northsea he presented case histories of the Brent South field abandonment project done using both class G cement with an expandable agent system and flexible cement according to the current stringent regulation. Cement integrity preservation during well completion, production phases as well as during abandonment is of critical importance for long-term protection. In the past years numerous papers and texts in the area of cement sheath failure, improved flexible and expanding cement and related topics have been published, indicating the increasing need to improve well abandonment and reduce cost. Examples of works published include but not limited to (Bosma et al 2000), (Ravi et al. 2002), (Glessner et al., 2005), (Mainguy et al., 2007), (D. G calvert et al., 1994), (Locolier et al., 2006),( Liversidge et al., 2006). Although many papers have been written, very little work has been done to investigate the cement plug integrity after abandonment. The ascribed cause to this may be that permanent abandonment is considered a non-profit venture. Mainguy M. et al., 2007 carried out an analysis of the probability of failure of cement plugs when subjected to varying compressive and tensile load using an ideal reservoir model designed to suit changes in the downhole condition. In his study he identified that there is a greater tendency for the material used to seal zones for abandonment to fail in wells situated where there is instability in the pressure, temperature and stress state due to changes that occur downhole. He concluded that when the plug is subjected to maximum tensile stress it failed due to the low tensile strength of the conventional class G cement. Though he suggested the use of pre-stressed cement as they adapt more to changes downhole, his work did not cover the problem of rock-cement de-bonding which is a problem that greatly reduces the sealing capacity of cement. In the study done by R.C. Smith et al., 1984, on the successful method of setting cement plug, he investigated the ongoing failures of cement plug s due to the instability caused by the difference between the density of the cement and the drilling mud. In his work, he suggested the use of mud thickened with bentonite before spotting the cement so as to allow a greater density difference. With respect to the problem of controlling the direction of flow of the cement slurry a diverter placed at the end of the tubing to help divert the direction of flow and improve stability. Drilling fluid can also be used as a plugging material by adding a cementitous additive. The additive can either be fly ash of blast furnace slag which have the characteristics of a cement as they harden when the mixed with water. Cement is not naturally occurring but manmade and like any other manmade material, it is expected to age, wear-off, and, degrade overtime under different subsurface condition, which may differ from the time it was initially set [W. Zhou et. al 2005]. Plugging oil well is a common operation, which is increasing as mature field reach the end of their producing life. In general, plugging and abandonment of a well involves filling a certain length of casing or open hole with a volume of cement mixture designed for it in order to provide adequate sealing against upward migration of formation fluid. After the cement plug is place in the desired location it is left to harden over time. The placement of the cement plug is a major part of abandonment, as failure of this will cause commingling of fluids from different formation. The setting and spotting of cement plugs can be done in various ways depending on the wellbore condition and regulatory requirement. A review of the worldwide acceptable plugging procedure shows the a minimum of three cement plugs is required of which two are, the first plug is put in place by squeezing the cement plug through the perforation into the former producing zone in order to seal off any further influx of reservoir fluid into the Wellbore[2]. The second plug is usually set towards the middle of the Wellbore or near a protective casing shoe. Finally the third plug is set about200- 300ft below the mud line. In general, the length of a plug ranges from 100to 200ft depending on the regulatory requirements. Any additional plug set is dependent on the well bore condition. Although observations and studies show that cement plugs have the ability to perform as expected for up to several decades, uncertainty exists that the material can maintain its isolation integrity for several thousands of years. Recent study shows that abandoned wells in which CO2 was used in the enhanced oil recovery technique prior to abandonment have the potential to leak and allow CO2 migration notwithstanding the fact that the well has been properly abandoned [Scherer, G.W et al, 2005]. This is mainly due to corrosion and degradation of the casing and cement. This degradation and corrosion occurs when carbonic acid formed from the dissolution of CO2 in brine attacks the cement and casing [Scherer, G.W et al, 2005] a process, which is dependent on the temperature of the formation, cement composition, brine and the rock mechanics and composition. Potential leakage of reservoir fluids through degraded cement plugs is hence of primary concern. Various work on inter-formational flow shows that there is still the possibility of flow between formations even with a successful plugging of different interval. This case can arise when the abandoned well is near an active well. Javandel et al developed the first analytical model; their model showed the possible of flow to an upper formation in response to a lower injection pressure build up in a lower formation. Striz and wiggings carried out further work by developing a coupled model to predict flow using a steady state approach to create a transient flow. This model can be used to developed abandoned fluid flow using available field data. In recent studies, statistics show that in the US one in every three well drilled for hydrocarbon is dry and have to be plugged and abandoned[D.G Calvert, et al 1994]. Wells are drilled for various reasons ranging from industrial, oil and gas, to municipal uses, but in the end these well have to be abandoned [D.G Calvert, et al 1994]. Some wells were abandoned before any regulation and guidelines were defined, these wells may have either been plugged improperly or not plugged at all and these now poses a threat to the quality of the groundwater. For the aim of regulating bodies to be achieved i.e. achieving underground water protect and hence environmental protect, the operating companies must understand that following the different regulatory requirement alone is not sufficient to guarantee a lasting protection of the environment [4]. It is sometimes difficult for operators to abide by the regulatory requirements as well as developing a plan which would both serve to seal off the reservoir and provide long-term protection of the environment while justifying the overall cost in general [4]. Currently there is a high rise in abandonment of ageing and mature field which either have reached their economic limit or are no longer producing (refer). Methods of ABANDONMENT The initial stage of a decommissioning process is the plugging and abandonment of the wells, during this stage, the tubing, casing strings, and, conductors are cut below the mud line and removed, zones are sealed with cement plug to isolate the flow path between the reservoir fluids and other zones as well as the surface. Zones not sealed with cement plug are filled with mud with fluid having the proper weight and consistency to prevent movement of other fluids into the wellbore. Most abandonments follow a general methodology that is adjusted to meet individual well requirements. As procedures can and do change significantly for each well, cement plug design should frequently be attuned to reach minimum wait-on-cement (WOC) times with varying downhole conditions. Near-wellbore geology should be assessed, and the wellbore and annuli properly cleaned to avoid microannuli and poor cement bonding. Traditional techniques include cement squeezes, gel squeezes, and mechanical plugs such as bridge plugs and packers. Cement and gel technologies are mainly used for behind casing repair, and mechanical options are usually confined to plugging the casing. In the general process of abandonment there as basic steps which are followed to ensure successful plug and abandonment program. This includes the planning process, wellbore equipment testing, designing, well geometry assessment. PA PLANNING The most essential decision after when to abandon a well [11] is how. Preparation is a key ingredient in plug and abandonment of a well. In order to abandon a well successfully careful planning and effective plugging and abandonment procedure is crucial to prevent gas or fluids from moving to the surface or to other subsurface formations. In addition to the environmental risks that come with poor seals, corrective plugging may be necessary, increasing the cost and difficulty of abandoning a well. However, operators and service companies have several options for obtaining complete, permanent abandonment. For every well, there is a variation as each well PA is unique and different. The techniques used to achieve this process are generally based on industry practice, research, and conformance with the relevant regulatory compliance requirement. The synthesis of practical knowledge, current technology and regulatory requirements results in the most effective wellbore plugging and abandonment possible. Wellbore equipment testing. A preliminary inspection and survey of the wellhead and wellbore condition is carried out to determine if the valves on the wellhead are in operable condition, if it is found not to be in operable condition they are hot-tapped. The wellbore is surveyed using a slickline unit to check for any obstructions in the well, to confirm measured depth and also to gauge the internal diameter of the tubing. After the survey and removal of the slickline, the annuli and tubing is filled with fluid using a well pump is installed at the wellhead to ascertain an injection rate into the perforations. The tubing and casing are also pressured up to check for integrity. Casing annuli are also pressure tested to check for communication problems between casing strings and to record the test pressure over a period of time. The integrity and reliability of the primary cement is assessed in order to ensure that the cement sheath is still providing isolation across the reservoir and the cap rock. A well control plan is designed to establish reservoir condition and subsequently the contingency responses to any event which may occur during the abandonment process. DESIGN OF A WELL ABANDONMENT PROGRAM Prior to plugging and abandoning a well, a review of the existing well design, record of past work, previous well performance and geologic and reservoir condition is carried out by the operator. The investigation of everything that may relate to the health and safety issues as well as regulatory requirements is also performed, after which the design of the abandonment program begins. The design is done based the existing wellbore and reservoir conditions depending on the findings from the review and investigation. This allows the operator to plan an abandonment program that will satisfy the goal of making the well safe from future resources. PA design needs to be integrated in the planning of the well, and should be considered in a single budget. There are many factors which must be put into consideration in order to design an effective abandonment program , such as, the reservoir status, the integrity of the primary cement, hole cleaning and cement placement technique, the temperatu re and pressure of the well, the type of fluid in the well, the age of the well, the status of the cap rock. Fluid Type Drilled wells produce fluids in liquid and gaseous form, wells which contain sour fluids i.e. sulphur rich would be expected to have accelerated corrosion rates and stress cracking depending on the age and wellbore construction, may impair the capacity to perform plug and abandonment, to mitigate this components which are corrosion resistant can be used. Reservoir status In the design of PA, it is necessary to consider the reservoir status concerning its stability, the current pressure and temperature, the pressure at the initial stages of well development and the permeability of the reservoir both horizontal and vertical. With the information, plug and abandonment is then designed to withstand the pressure of the well after finally reach equilibrium. Cap rock Status It is also necessary to take into consideration the cap rock status i.e. is it still impermeable, has production activities induced fracture or has weathering taken effect. Placing the Plugs After the design and planning of the abandonment program, calculations must be made to determine the amount of cement required and the number of wiper plugs needed to separate the cement plugs from the rest of the fluids. The use of wiper plugs enables the formation of a stable platform on which the cement can be set. A wiper plug is placed in the wellbore, and then a predetermined quantity of cement slurry is pumped on top of it. Because of its weight, the slurry becomes a driving force. The slurry falls to the bottom of the hole, pushing the wiper plug ahead of it and forcing existing air and produced fluids back into the formation. Another plug and perhaps a bit more cement finish the job. In most wells, where there is one permaeble zone, one plug and one volume of cement and the surface plug are all that is needed. In other wells, additional wiper plugs, additional cement slurry, and probably spacers of water or drilling fluid are used consecutively until all of the air and fluid is forced out into the formation, there is zilch pressure on the pipe, and it is apparent from the returns that the whole wellbore is appropriately sealed. The quantity and kind of spacer fluid that can be used is dependent on individual state regulations. The remaining casing at the top of the well is cut off 3 ft below ground level. Along with this general methodology, each region stipulates its own abandonment methods based on field conditions and local regulations as can be seen in the following examples. PA steps in Los Angeles Basin in as follows [12]: The abandonment program is prepared with the support of a qualified engineer. A schematic showing the current mechanical condition of the well is prepared. The geologic condition of the well, including the structure, faulting, and producing zones is assessed. The depth and position of cement plug that will cover the producing zones and any potable water zones if applicable is measured and verified. Choice of whether to use perforating or cavity shots is made. The casing is pressure tested after setting cement retainers. The different equipment required for the job is determined and assembled. Estimate of abandonment/re-abandonment costs is made. In contrast, the steps followed for the Hutton tension-leg platform (TLP) in the East Shetland Basin of the North Sea involved three phases [13]: Perform standalone wireline intervention. Perform drilling unit intervention to set the cement plugs after the first wireline plug has been set. Cut casing 10 ft below the seabed and recover casing stumps. Another abandonment performed in the North Sea followed a different procedure [14]: A permanent cement primary barrier placed immediately above the reservoir. A secondary barrier placed as a back-up to the first barrier. A third barrier then placed near the surface to isolate shallow water-bearing sands. Severed completion tubing and recover wellhead. In Western Canada, the traditional abandonment procedure of wells with casing vent flows included the following: The source of the casing vent flow is estimated or determined. If the source zone is shallower than the producing zone, the producing zone is abandoned. The source zone is perforated. Depending on the feed rate obtained at the estimated source depth, either a bradenhead or a retainer squeeze is performed. Retrievable tools are used as required. Typically, Class G cement with Calcium Chloride and some fluid-loss control is utilized. The slurry is placed and a static squeeze pressure of 7 MPa is attempted. As needed, cement is drilled out and perforations are tested for seal. Often, several attempts are made in order to obtain a static squeeze pressure of 7 Mpa on surface or mitigate the casing vent flow. Techniques for Abandonment The techniques used for plugging and abandonment of drilled well worldwide are generally based on industry practise. These techniques include; Rig Coil tubing unit Rigless abandonment COIL TUBING UNIT The flexibility of coiled tubing has recently been tailored to develop rigless abandonment [15,16]. This method, focuses on harmonizing all well services to accomplish utmost efficiency. Coiled-tubing unit [fig.] abandonment, like any other method, is more effective when appropriate cementing procedure is used from the kick-off of the well, from original zonal isolation with the primary cement sheath to plugging and abandonment. Early prevention of microannulus can help operators obtain a complete final seal. Five main criteria are recommended for optimal abandonment performance with coiled tubing: Mobility; All equipment should be mounted on wheels for increased mobility. Self-sufficiency; the service company provides nearly all activities. Dry location; Fluids are not drained on or near the wellsite. Single operation; the job is completed in one visit to the wellsite. Low mileage; Move time is reduced and transport optimized for maximum efficiency in unit and camp moves. In this abandonment technique geological consideration like the type and condition of the reservoir and caprock formations are take into account. Permanent seals typically must be made between producing zones and at impermeable caprock formations. The condition and configuration of cement, perforations, tubulars, and downhole equipment are also considered. In addition to providing complete, permanent seals, the use of coiled-tubing can help increase abandonment efficiency. This method can provide the following advantages: Increased tripping speeds Increased rig-move efficiency Precise placement of cement plugs; exact spotting of plugs at the interval of interest even in deep well as coil tubing can be reciprocated while pumping. Suitable for use on live wells; it is possible to run CTU for remedial cement squeeze in live well as the wellbore can be controlled using the BOP and stripper assembly. No need to pull production tubing; existing tubing and wellheads do not have to be removed to access the producing interval. Success using the coil tubing method has been recorded in Oman. REGULATORY REQUIREMENT FOR ABANDONMENT IN THE NORTHSEA AND USA In the early years on the oil and gas industry, many wells were drilled and some were found to be dry and subsequently were abandoned without much consideration given to the manner in which the wells were abandoned. Sometimes tree stumps were thrown in the well as a means to plug it [3], during this era the preservation of the groundwater, in general, the environment was not a major issue, and there was no defined regulation by the oil states or agencies. During the tail end of the 1930s different states and agencies in the US started establishing regulations, this defined requirement to ensure better well abandonment [D.G Calvert, et al 1994]. The number of regulation guiding well abandonment has risen along with the rising need to protect the environment in countries around the world. Today most countries have some form of regulation that addresses well abandonment requirement; though these regulations are not uniform and differ from country to country and body to body, they provide a minimum standard for operating companies. For instance for the state of California in the United States of America, the different governing bodies have their own regulations which are as follows; Minerals Management Services (MMS): The basic plugging requirements are found in 30 CFR 250.110 Subpart G. Department of Conservation, Division of Oil: Gas, and Geothermal Resources (DOC) The California Code of Regulations Title 14 Division 2, Chapter 4 beginning with Section 1745 focuses on the fundamental plugging requirements. California State Lands Commission (CSLC): The fundamental plugging requirements in the California Code of Regulations Title 2 Section 2128(q). Abandonment in the North Sea In the North Sea as in US, the regulations differ. The different countries that make up the North Sea have their different governing bodies and subsequently different regulation. The law in the UK, Norway, Denmark and Holland holds the last operator of a well accountable and responsible to pay for all the cost incurred in permanently abandoning the well. It also holds them accountable for any leakage and any clean up that may be required in the event of a leak. Abandonment programs in the Northsea are designed to meet the guidelines for abandonment issued by the operation association or government. For the UK sector of the north sea, abandonment guidelines is issued by the UKOOA, similarly for the Norwegian sector the guidelines are contained in the NORSOK/PTIL D-010 standard and for the Netherlands it is contained in the Dutch Mining

Cloning: An Option for Endangered Species Conservation Essay -- Biolog

Cloning: An Option for Endangered Species Conservation Review of the Literature Geneticists know that the technology of cloning lies in the palm of their hands, and its use on domestic animals and now endangered species has already proven successful (â€Å"Endangered Species†; Fields-Meyer and Seaman;Holt et al.; Lanza et al.; Trivedi). The question I ask now is this: Will cloning be used in the conservation of endangered species? This very question has sparked debate between the scientific community and many conservationists. Contrary to the values set forth by many conservationist groups, my research suggests that the cloning of endangered species is, in fact, a viable option in their preservation and repopulation. Most of the sources I have used in my research have supported the idea of using cloning to rebuild animal populations or at least obtain viable DNA from endangered animals. The prominent scientists Betsy Dresser, Robert Lanza, and Philip Damiani of the Advanced Cell Technology laboratories in Worcester, Massachusetts, expressed their optimism about cloning endangered species in the article "Cloning Noah's Ark." Dresser and Lanza were also quoted in several online news sources I used as well. They conclude that "Biotechnology might offer the best way to keep some endangered species from disappearing from the planet" (Lanza et al). As my research suggests, cloning endangered species will surely have its benefits in keeping these populations alive, an option which conservationists cannot deny. These scientists I have mentioned do not ignore opposition to their scientific claims from conservationists skeptical of the uses of cloning and leery that it usage will deter humans from restoring natural habita... ...://www.reproduction-online.org.silk.library.umass.edu:2048/cgiLcQntent/ full/127/3/317>. Lanza, Robert P., Betsy L. Dresser, and Philip Damiani. "Cloning Noah's Ark." Scientific American 283 (2000). Academic Search Premier. 22 Oct. 2005 &db=aph&an=3664004>. Ryder, Oliver A. "Cloning advances and challenges for conservation." Trends in Biotechnology 20.6 (June 2002): 231. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. DuBois Library, Amherst, MA. 22 October 2005 rect=true&db=aph&AN=7799659&site=ehost-live>. Trivedi, Bijal P. "Scientists Clone First Endangered Species: A Wild Sheep." National Geographic News. 29 Oct. 2001.14 Oct. 2005 1/10/1025 TV sheepclone.htm>.

Children’s Literature II: Young Adult Literature Essay

47, written by Walter Mosley, is the story of a 14 year old slave who lives on a cotton plantation in Georgia. 47 has lived in the house and barn all his life, thus giving him a clouded vision of what slave life is really like. One day he is relocated to the slave chambers where his universe is turned upside down. 47 meets a presumably runaway slave, named Tall John who in all reality is an extraterrestrial. Through their friendship Tall John teaches 47 all about freedom and his world. Through the text we are given a chance to find a new experience with the world of slave history, African American folklore, and science fiction. After researching articles the main focus of discussion is the unique combining of the slave narrative with the science fiction. Slavery is still a very touchy subject. Whites do not want to relive the horrid treatment that they put upon the slaves and slaves do not want to read and learn about the harm done to their ancestors. Walter Mosley chose to write this story to convey the story of slavery from a first person narrative but also to put a spin on it so that it wouldn’t be so depressing. The text has some amazing, out of this world gadgets and healing devices but I am even more compelled to think that the truth it brings to light is an even more powerful thing. As Hazel Rochman stated I have to fully agree, â€Å"slavery is the most unbelievable part of this whole story†. In â€Å"Conversations with Walter Mosley† by Owen Edward Brady we read that Walter Mosley’s novels are filled with â€Å"folk archetypes†. In 47 we are able to see the full l ist of archetypes being fulfilled. The archetypal seeker could be Tall John leaving his planet to come to earth to find 47. It could also be 47 leaving the big house to end up in the slave quarters. The Junex verses the Senex could be the conflict between Pritchard and 47. The Orphan could be Tall John, 47, 84’s children, or any other slaves that were torn away from their families. The Caregiver could be Mama Flore, Mud Albert, or Champ Noland. The Sage in the text is Tall John from beyond Africa. Friends are Tall John and 47. Lovers are Tall John and 84, Mama Flore and Mud Albert, 47’s parents. Warriors and Heroes are Mama Flore, Mud Albert, and Champ Noland. Villains are Mr. Stewart, Pike, and Calash. Rulers are portrayed to be Mr. Tobias and the whites. The Trickster in 47 is Tall John. He uses many different tricks be them for good or bad. The pros and cons of 47 are hard to distinguish. If you were to use this text in a secondary setting you would need to get the administrator’s and parent’s permission. The cons of using this text in a secondary setting are that the text has some brutal hardships that the slaves had to endure. Language, rape, torture, kidnapping, and slavery are some of the cons that might not be appropriate for a less mature audience. The pros of the text are astounding. The story points out so many truths about slavery, and the pains that it places upon each generation. 47 takes a huge stance against slavery and thus takes a stand against racial prejudices. â€Å"Neither master nor nigger be† are powerful words that ring true for 47, finally. 20 Minute Writing Assignment – Think about Tall John’s â€Å"yellow bag of tricks† and think back through the text. What are some items that should have been in his bag? You can create / design a new item or think of something that could have been there that could have helped them along their journey. Works Cited Mosley, Walter, and Owen Edward Brady. Conversations with Walter Mosley. Jackson: University of Mississippi, 2011. Print. Mosley, Walter. 47. New York: Little, Brown, 2006. Print. Rochman, Hazel. â€Å"Walter Mosley Literature.† Walter Mosley Literature. N.p., n.d. Web. 07 Feb. 2013.

The purpose of this lab activity was to measure anaerobic power per unit of time

The purpose of this lab activity was to measure anaerobic power per unit of time. This has to do with the muscular strength of the body and the rate the body utilizes ATP and the anaerobic glycolysis system. The Wingate test is performed by a warm up period of two to three minutes followed by a resting period of one to two minutes. Continuing the test after the resting period the performer peddles as fast as he/she can for five seconds. Then the resistance (calculated by performer's weight divided by 2.205 equaling performers Kilogram Weight multiplied by .075) is added and the peddling remains for 30 second at full speed while the data is taken. The data is taken by additional subjects counting the number of pedal rotations throughout the 30 seconds. This is how the power output is measured for the quadriceps muscles. The main point for the test is that the subject must remain at maximal speed for the entire 30 seconds. This test is useful for any type of athlete who is trying to improve muscle strength to maintain or gain speed and power. As one looks at the percentile charts of norms, he/she can evaluate his or herself among other athletes. This chart is useful because it is a starting point for training and improving the strength needed to endure and gain muscle strength. As compared with the percentile of norms the data calculated for me the performer, peak 5-second was 1023.55 which is average for a conditioned athlete. For Anaerobic capacity my percentage of 800.42001, which is exceptional by comparison to the percentile of norms, equals the power output of the muscle over the 30-seconds. Finally, the fatigue index which reflects the muscles ability to resist fatigue, which my percentage equaled 53.33, was at a low resistance to muscle fatigue. In conclusion to the results of the Wingate anaerobic test, I found out that this test is not exactly the preferred test of

Why Are Some States Promoting Asian Values So Energetically essays

Why Are Some States Promoting Asian Values So Energetically essays Human Rights and democracy have always created controversy and this can be said to be true in the face of the emergence of the Asian Values discourse. In order to discover why certain states are furthering these types of values we must firstly consider what constitutes Asian Values, secondly the reasons for their popularity amongst their proponents and finally the validity of their arguments. Mauzy writes, "to be sure, there is no single pan-Asian view or set of values, there is no uniform ideology, and there is no single cultural system". Indeed, in view of the diverse nature of the Asian continent it would be unrealistic to suggest all Asians prioritise the same virtues. However, the post-Cold War period has seen the states of the South Eastern region of Asia, especially Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia, advance a common batch of specifically Asian Values. It is these values upon which government policies have been based and approaches to Human Rights have been justified Evans. The nature of the Asian Values espoused by the South East Asian states is similar to that of the conservative 'Victorian values' or 'protestant ethic' evident in Western society a hundred years ago. Mauzy. Indeed, the main values held here include respect for authority, deference to societal interest, emphasis on duty, consensual politics and the centrality of the family in social relations .Evans. Thus implying the prioritisation of community interest and basic duties over individual rights. As Christie and Roy suggest, "in East Asia it is often asserted that their cultures protect the community at the expense of restricting the freedoms of the individual, while the West takes the opposite approach". Furthermore, the necessity of a strong state is paramount in the Asian view. The 1993 Bangkok Declaration emphasised the notion of sovereignty and non-interference in the internal affairs of a state, whilst overlooking the role of the state as a protector of...

Free Essays on The Sociological Approach

The Sociological Approach Several years ago the New York Times asked several foreign photographers to comment on which one of their captured images is most telling of Americans (Jeffrey, 1993). Observed one about his photograph of an Ernest Hemingway look-alike festival in Key West, Florida: "There is no other country where people so cherish the ability to look like famous people. I could spend the rest of my life photographing look-alike contests as well as ugly baby contests, conventions of twins. Although these are fascinating events, there is a sense of desperation and emptiness in a society that places such a high regard on looking like someone else." What distinguishes sociological from psychological approaches to self and mind is the focus on the ways in which one person’s â€Å"identity† is negotiated with others as well as the environment around them. In this essay I argue that mental illness is a collapse in the face of social environmental stress and the best way to treat this illness is to eliminate or reduce social stressors by encouraging social support as well as teach the affected individual better coping strategies. In part, I also feel as though our peculiar cultural obsession to search for a self we supposedly don’t know involves the extreme individualism of American culture, which is by far one of the largest stressors Americans face today. The sense of identity is important to both psychology and sociology. Not only does having the sense of self provide one with feelings of free will, but it is also a basis of social control. Consider the expression "I know the type," when referring to a particular person. That statement carries assumption that there are types of selves and that each self can be expected to act in distinctive ways in different types of situations. For children, it can start as early as the first day of elementary school. Kids classify themselves and others into typical â€Å"groups... Free Essays on The Sociological Approach Free Essays on The Sociological Approach The Sociological Approach Several years ago the New York Times asked several foreign photographers to comment on which one of their captured images is most telling of Americans (Jeffrey, 1993). Observed one about his photograph of an Ernest Hemingway look-alike festival in Key West, Florida: "There is no other country where people so cherish the ability to look like famous people. I could spend the rest of my life photographing look-alike contests as well as ugly baby contests, conventions of twins. Although these are fascinating events, there is a sense of desperation and emptiness in a society that places such a high regard on looking like someone else." What distinguishes sociological from psychological approaches to self and mind is the focus on the ways in which one person’s â€Å"identity† is negotiated with others as well as the environment around them. In this essay I argue that mental illness is a collapse in the face of social environmental stress and the best way to treat this illness is to eliminate or reduce social stressors by encouraging social support as well as teach the affected individual better coping strategies. In part, I also feel as though our peculiar cultural obsession to search for a self we supposedly don’t know involves the extreme individualism of American culture, which is by far one of the largest stressors Americans face today. The sense of identity is important to both psychology and sociology. Not only does having the sense of self provide one with feelings of free will, but it is also a basis of social control. Consider the expression "I know the type," when referring to a particular person. That statement carries assumption that there are types of selves and that each self can be expected to act in distinctive ways in different types of situations. For children, it can start as early as the first day of elementary school. Kids classify themselves and others into typical â€Å"groups...

Read story and answer question Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Read story and answer question - Case Study Example She appears to be irritated by the way some ignorant people try to trace her roots, not to the country or culture, but to the person in the family who was originally fair complexioned. The stylistic devices used in the essay are irony and conflict to deepen the meaning. â€Å"We mixed-raced people know what you really mean. You dont want to know where we were born or where we grew up. You dont want to know what kinds of regimes we lived under or what languages we speak. You want to know who in our family isnt white.†What might have been an inquisitive person’s innocuous question aimed at knowing the person better is taken as an offense by the author. â€Å"Yet because my skin isnt white, some people think its entirely acceptable to hound me about my so-called identity. People who dont know me, dont want to know me, who will never see me again. People who just need to know so that they know. And if youre one of these people, Ill tell you that Im from Vanya.† This sentence clearly reflects the conflict in the mind of the author. The author should have the necessary confidence to brush these remarks casually and go on with life, rather than allow ing such remarks or incidents to hurt

The new Scottish Government will be good for Scottish business Essay

The new Scottish Government will be good for Scottish business. Discuss - Essay Example The first step is to form a Council of Economic Advisors. This council will help new-born businesses to find their niche in the market, and help them with tax payments, loans, grants and other financial schemes and delivery agencies initiated by the Government. These grants are focused on carrying out a research about new and lucrative products that could be developed so that new businesses do not find a marker block. Also, they are disbursed according to a regional strategy, in which sectors of the country are designated to these grant authorities who then work closely with the local enterprises and provide them with custom-designed support and solutions. Along with these grants, a programme, called the Scottish Executive Expertise, Knowledge and Innovation Transfer Programme (SEEKIT) provides financial support and grants for science based projects in the public sector, so that their can be a flow of information between that sector and the enterprises, which could then benefit from the knowledge and finance to increase productivity, economy and efficiency of their businesses. Likewise, small and medium sized businesses are encouraged so that more families can invest, and their has been a reduction in the tax payments by these businesses, the taxes being based not on the Council set taxes, but on the ability of the businesses to pay them. For the young people still undertaking their education, the Government has provided increased vocational opportunities so that along with their education, they can pursue employment services. As more people would start their own businesses, more employment opportunities would be created, and as more young citizens would start participating in the economic sector, the productivity rate of the country would boom immensely, leading to an sustained, long-term economic growth with easy and relaxed regulations for the efficient functioning of this sector. To organise their plans and to better formulate their strategies towards the business sector, an enterprise strategy was worked out, known as A Smart, Successful Scotland (SSS). It was refreshed (Jim Wallace 2004) in 2004, and addresses the current issues and schemes related to the enterprises, highlighting the areas that require special attention, both in Scottish Enterprise and Highlands and Islands Enterprise, for a long-term economic growth. The priorities addressed in the document can be summarised into three basic strategies: growing businesses, global connections, and skills and learning (Enterprise Strategy 2007). According to these set strategies, the enterprise networks have been re-structured and reformed, taking into account the localised challenges and

Capital Accumulation for Beautiful You Ltd Essay

Capital Accumulation for Beautiful You Ltd - Essay Example This report will point out the documents need to be prepared and the various mandatory procedures Alethra Brotherton and her partner and Beautiful You Ltd. need to comply  with, in order to issue the shares to Expansion Capital plc or, alternatively,  borrow the money from the bank and create the security required.   I. Legal Procedures and Documentation Required According to Bos (1969), every business transaction is a legal activity as each business concern is a separate legal entity. In the given case, there are two options available for the Beautiful You Ltd to finance its planned expansion. One is to acquire ?150,000 from Expansion Capital plc in return of one third of the shares of the company. The second option allows the company to receive ?100,000 from the company’s bank on the strength of a fixed charge over the new shop premises. In order to proceed with both these options, the Beautiful You Ltd has to prepare certain documentations and comply with other legal procedures. If the company decides to finance its proposed business expansion plan by acquiring funds from Expansion Capital plc, it needs to issue one third of its shares to Expansion Capital plc. Since the Beautiful You Ltd is a private company, it is not required to state the authorized share capital. However, if the Beautiful You Ltd has registered before 01.10.2009, it would have an authorized share capital provision in its memorandum of association if it has not been removed. In such a situation, the Beautiful You Ltd can issue shares only up to its authorized capital amount which is stated under the capital clause of the memorandum of association. If the company has no sufficient authorized capital available, it must amend the articles before the share issue. A copy of the passed resolution, a form of G123, and the altered memorandum must be registered at Companies House. However, these procedures do not affect the Beautiful You Ltd if it had been formed after 01.10.2009. Alt hough the share allotment is a matter of management, the directors are subjected to some statutory obligations in order to prevent abuses of powers. The directors have the authority to allot shares if the company has only one class of shares; this provision is also subjected to specific restrictions in the company’s articles (sec550, CA 2006). In contrast, a special resolution (sec51, CA 2006) or a provision in the company’s articles must authorize the directors to allot shares if the company has more than one class of shares. While taking a decision regarding share issuance to the Expansion Capital plc, the beautiful You Ltd must consider the pre-emptive rights for existing members, which have been defined as statutory pre-emptive rights in sec561, CA 2006. However, the Beautiful You Ltd can exclude these rights by either a provision in the company’s articles or by passing a special resolution (sec569-sec571). When the Beautiful You Ltd takes such a capital acc umulation decision, some of its existing shareholders may waive their rights to them. Under such circumstances, the company has the legal obligation to offer shares to them. After ensuring that all the above matters has been attended, the directors of the Beautiful You Ltd may resolve to allot shares by clearly stating number and class of shares, the price paid, the allottees, whether for cash or other assets. The directors must issue share certificate to the Expansion

Question 30 of 30 Explain in your own words the logic of statistical Essay

Question 30 of 30 Explain in your own words the logic of statistical significance - Essay Example This means that even if it does, it happens very infrequently, thus leading the teacher to the conclusion that since the event occurs so infrequently, the child is probably lying and the most probable thing that must have happened is that the child never did the homework. The child’s explanation is statistically insignificant since the probability of occurrence of such incidents is very less, if any. â€Å"Although tests of statistical significance are widely reported in criminal justice literature, the logic underlying them is subtle and often misunderstood† (2011, p. 292). The logic here is that very unlikely events like a cat eating a child’s homework surprise teachers greatly and so the teachers tend to think of a better explanation. It is hard to depict which level of significance is significant. There has to be a sufficiently large coincidence to assume that the matter under consideration is not simply a mere

The Impact of Diversity on Creativity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Impact of Diversity on Creativity - Essay Example This is particularly relevant for companies now with the call for both incremental and revolutionary change to enliven the vision and mission† Segal (2001).   Let us take the workplace as an example. Many companies hire people from different ethnic backgrounds. And apparently for very good reasons. The recent years saw the number of corporate managers subscribing to the idea that â€Å"when well managed,† ethnic diversity in the workplace can â€Å"provide organizations with certain competitive advantages.† (McLeod, Lobel & Cox 1996). These managers believe that ideas, which the ethnically diverse groups come up with, are often found to have â€Å"higher quality—more effective and feasible—than the ideas produced by the homogeneous groups,† or the group of people with the same ethnicity. According to McLeod, Lobel & Cox (1996), an enlightened manager realizes that stronger unity exists within diversity. As Lisagor (2006) states;   On the other hand, leaders who appreciate the value of different life experiences, surround themselves with many types of individuals, and encourage dissenting views are usually rewarded with greater success and personal satisfaction.   Advocates for diversity argue that having people with diverse backgrounds will offer diverse ideas to the company.

Extra Credit Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Extra Credit - Essay Example On researching the ecological and agricultural characteristics in the Denver area it is found that the peculiar climatic condition experiencing there is between desert climate and humid climate. Hence the climatic condition prevailing there is considered as mild evapotranspiration climate. Since this city is at high altitude this peculiar climatic condition provide the quality of the Mediterranean weather such as dry summer and wetter winter. It is considered that the city has 79 official neighborhoods. Hence the residents of this metropolitan area are mainly the neighborhood communities. The features of these neighborhoods vary each other and they include large skyscrapers, twentieth century houses and modern styled twenty first century buildings. The neighborhoods which are closer to the Denver city comprises of denser buildings which are old styled. The developments of the neighborhoods which are not closer to the concerned city had taken place immediately after Second World War. The buildings at these areas were constructed with modern materials and hence they appeared in high style. Still farther neighborhoods were with suburban characteristics and the people in that area could be recognized by means of their features. Majority of the neighborhoods have parks and other modern facilities and these are considered as the key peculiarities of these neighborhoods. The important neighborhoods of Denver city are Lower Down Town, Union Station Neighborhood, Washington Park, Capitol Hill, Highland Cherry etc. All these neighborhoods have very important roles in the metropolitan developments of the Denver city. Parks are the main peculiarities of the Denver city. As per the survey conducted in 2006 this metropolitan city has more than 200 parks in its credit which vary from mini parks to giant ones. All these parks are with beautiful landscape architects. Since the Denver city is situated at high altitude these are no scarcity for mountain

Question 30 of 30 Explain in your own words the logic of statistical Essay

Question 30 of 30 Explain in your own words the logic of statistical significance - Essay Example This means that even if it does, it happens very infrequently, thus leading the teacher to the conclusion that since the event occurs so infrequently, the child is probably lying and the most probable thing that must have happened is that the child never did the homework. The child’s explanation is statistically insignificant since the probability of occurrence of such incidents is very less, if any. â€Å"Although tests of statistical significance are widely reported in criminal justice literature, the logic underlying them is subtle and often misunderstood† (2011, p. 292). The logic here is that very unlikely events like a cat eating a child’s homework surprise teachers greatly and so the teachers tend to think of a better explanation. It is hard to depict which level of significance is significant. There has to be a sufficiently large coincidence to assume that the matter under consideration is not simply a mere

Extra Credit Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 2

Extra Credit - Essay Example On researching the ecological and agricultural characteristics in the Denver area it is found that the peculiar climatic condition experiencing there is between desert climate and humid climate. Hence the climatic condition prevailing there is considered as mild evapotranspiration climate. Since this city is at high altitude this peculiar climatic condition provide the quality of the Mediterranean weather such as dry summer and wetter winter. It is considered that the city has 79 official neighborhoods. Hence the residents of this metropolitan area are mainly the neighborhood communities. The features of these neighborhoods vary each other and they include large skyscrapers, twentieth century houses and modern styled twenty first century buildings. The neighborhoods which are closer to the Denver city comprises of denser buildings which are old styled. The developments of the neighborhoods which are not closer to the concerned city had taken place immediately after Second World War. The buildings at these areas were constructed with modern materials and hence they appeared in high style. Still farther neighborhoods were with suburban characteristics and the people in that area could be recognized by means of their features. Majority of the neighborhoods have parks and other modern facilities and these are considered as the key peculiarities of these neighborhoods. The important neighborhoods of Denver city are Lower Down Town, Union Station Neighborhood, Washington Park, Capitol Hill, Highland Cherry etc. All these neighborhoods have very important roles in the metropolitan developments of the Denver city. Parks are the main peculiarities of the Denver city. As per the survey conducted in 2006 this metropolitan city has more than 200 parks in its credit which vary from mini parks to giant ones. All these parks are with beautiful landscape architects. Since the Denver city is situated at high altitude these are no scarcity for mountain